1 Introduction
Attractive aesthetic objects are typically considered visually pleasing, and there is a general consensus among people regarding the characteristics of beauty (Carbon, 2011; Brielmann et al., 2021) such as fluency, symmetry, typicality, and complexity, among others. However, many highly attractive objects do not conform to these feature standards and may even be considered unattractive from a general beauty perspective. This phenomenon is particularly prevalent among Internet memes. For example, Lenda et al. (2020) generated interest in the less attractive Nasalis larvatus by presenting it in the form of Internet memes, significantly enhancing its attractiveness and serving as a means of promoting the conservation of endangered animals. The globally popular “Ugly Dolls” series of plush toys and movies also stand out due to their ugly-cute features, and they have gained immense popularity through Internet memes (Sabina, 2019). Similarly, in the Chinese movie “Ne Zha” (Fan, 2021), the character Ne Zha represents this “ugly-cute” aesthetic. Ne Zha’s “smoky makeup” and “buck teeth,” which are traditionally considered unattractive features, contrast with his high attractiveness, creating an intriguing aesthetic phenomenon.
Internet memes are “popular culture units that are spread, imitated, and transformed by individual internet users, creating a shared cultural experience” (Shifman, 2013). The internet has long-term aesthetic trends, one of which is “Internet Ugliness,” a previously unnamed style pervasive across many different internet cultures, particularly in meme content (Douglas, 2014). For instance, images with captions based on cultural elements can be termed as memes. Usually, memes convey a social message through a humorous format (Akram et al., 2020). We collectively refer to this category of memes, which have low aesthetic appeal but high attractiveness, as “ugly-cute.” As the name suggests, “ugly-cute” combines both “ugly” and “cute” elements. While the study of “ugliness” as an extreme expression of beauty has a long history in aesthetics and has been thought-provoking (Bayley, 2012), the experience of ugliness also has an emotional dimension. Artworks can evoke various emotions, varying in degrees of value and arousal (Leder et al., 2004; Markovic, 2010). However, most empirical aesthetic studies focus on the mixture of pleasure and displeasure aesthetic experiences, neglecting the more complex forms of aesthetic engagement associated with ugliness (Brady and Prior, 2020).
Another element of “ugly-cute” memes is “cute.” In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the study of “cuteness” worldwide (Lieber-Milo and Nittono, 2019; Nittono et al., 2023). A survey conducted in Japan, the United States, and Israel shows that “cuteness” is associated with positive emotional responses (Nittono et al., 2021). Research on ugly-cute memes is beneficial for expanding the scope of aesthetics, challenging general definitions of beauty, and providing design strategies to enhance the attractiveness of objects with low aesthetic appeal. This study aims to explore the mechanisms through which emotions contribute to the high attractiveness of ugly-cute memes. As many have observed, the ugly-cute concept in visual art is captivating, emotionally moving, and often closely related to beauty, but it requires its own unique investigation.
Aesthetic experience is a priori, a unique, and even sublime form of human experience (Bara et al., 2022). Leder et al. (2013) investigated the factors influencing aesthetic experience in art portraits, and the study found that attractiveness (likability) notably impacts aesthetic preferences. However, although attractiveness is a significant aesthetic factor, it is not always directly related to the overall aesthetic appeal or quality evaluation of a product (Hoegg et al., 2010). The complete aesthetic response involves perceptual processing, cognitive evaluation, cultural knowledge, and emotions such as pleasure or surprise (Leder et al., 2004; Marković, 2012). “Aesthetic emotion” refers to the emotions evoked when appreciating aesthetic objects (Perlovsky, 2014; Silvia et al., 2015). Aesthetic objects possess unique stimulus features that can elicit specific emotions or emotional responses in observers (Menninghaus et al., 2019). Emotions play a significant cognitive role and have an important influence on aesthetic judgment (Tiihonen et al., 2024). Individuals experience pleasurable emotions when appreciating nature, artworks, and other human creations (Armstrong and Detweiler-Bedell, 2008). Researchers define “aesthetic pleasure” as a shared enjoyment derived from responding to the purpose or meaning expressed by an aesthetic object (Reber et al., 2004). The Pleasure-Interest Model of Aesthetic Liking (PIA model) developed by Graf and Landwehr (2017) suggests that aesthetically pleasing things elicit positive emotions such as pleasure and interest, thereby generating attractiveness. A recent review of studies suggests that, in addition to the aesthetic pleasure and interest emphasized in the PIA model’s automatic and controlled processing stages, aesthetic immersion pleasure is also present in the integrative sublimation stage (Menninghaus et al., 2019).
Therefore, our first hypothesis is:
H1a: Beauty positively influences pleasure.
H1b: Beauty positively influences attractiveness.
H1c: Pleasure positively influences attractiveness, acting as a mediator between beauty and attractiveness.
However, the attractiveness of ugly-cute memes may follow different pathways compared to general beauty. In the context of ugly-cute memes, this aesthetic immersion pleasure in the integrative sublimation stage may be influenced by other factors such as the emotion of humor. Humor, as a positive emotion, also plays a significant role in aesthetic experiences (Eisend, 2009; Gordon, 2012, 2013). Research has shown that humor can enhance positive emotional responses. For example, Cancelas-Ouviña (2021) found that memes with humorous features helped alleviate feelings of sadness, fear, and pain. In recent years, numerous studies have demonstrated the benefits of humorous memes for the psychological well-being of individuals with depression (Akram et al., 2020; Akram and Drabble, 2022). According to the incongruity resolution theory (Suls, 1972), individuals experiencing humor in a story first encounter a stage of incongruity, which precedes its resolution. The cognitive process underpinning humor comprehension consists of identifying and resolving the incongruity. Appreciating humor involves a deeper exploration of this comprehension, ultimately leading to the experience of enjoyment (Chang et al., 2024). Therefore, we hypothesize that ugly-cute features may elicit an emotional experience of humor, resulting in pleasurable emotions and subsequently increasing the attractiveness of ugly-cute memes.
Hypothesis two is as follows:
H2a: Ugly-cute positively influences humor.
H2b: Humor positively influences pleasure, which in turn positively influences attractiveness, suggesting that humor and pleasure mediate the relationship between ugly-cute and attractiveness.
Philosophical theories of beauty have detailed the contributions of various experiential dimensions to aesthetic experience, one of which is surprise (Brielmann et al., 2021). Brielmann et al. (2021) propose that a good aesthetic experience has six dimensions: intense pleasure, universal appeal, desire for continued experience, exceeding expectations, perceived diversity, and meaning. The design of ugly-cute memes often evokes surprise, which can be understood as “exceeding expectations.” Declos (2014) suggests that surprise can be regarded as a significant emotional response in aesthetic experiences, creating cognitive shifts and new understandings, thereby enhancing the appeal of artworks. According to Marmur and Koichu (2016), surprise plays a significant role in the aesthetic experience. Their research explored the aesthetic experiences of university students with mathematical problems, particularly the feelings of surprise elicited upon discovering unexpected solutions. The study found that the students’ aesthetic responses to the problems were largely dependent on the degree of surprise they experienced after revealing a clever solution, especially following several failed attempts. This suggests that surprise can enhance the aesthetic experience, making it more profound and memorable. Therefore, we hypothesize that surprise is also an important influencing factor in ugly-cute memes.
Hypothesis three is as follows:
H3a: Ugly-cute positively influences surprise.
H3b: Surprise positively influences pleasure, which subsequently positively influences attractiveness, indicating that surprise and pleasure mediate the relationship between ugly-cute and attractiveness.